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Методичний проект Із науково-технічного перекладу хімії
Інформація про навчальний заклад
ВУЗ:
Інші
Інститут:
Не вказано
Факультет:
Не вказано
Кафедра:
Не вказано
Інформація про роботу
Рік:
2016
Тип роботи:
Методичні вказівки до виконання дипломних та магістерських кваліфікаційних робіт
Предмет:
науково технічний переклад
Частина тексту файла (без зображень, графіків і формул):
МЕТОДИЧНИЙ ПРОЕКТ
ПЕРЕКЛАД АНГЛОМОВНОЇ ХІМІЧНОЇ ЛІТЕРАТУРИІВАНО-ФРАНКІВСЬК -2016
Методичний проект
Переклад англомовної хімічної літератури: загальні принципи
Підготувала
ст.гр. ПФ-14-1
Зуєва Х. О.
Івано-Франківськ – 2016
УДК 811.111 (075.8)
ББК 8.12 Англ. - 923
Методичний проект призначений для розвитку навичок та вмінь усного та письмового перекладу у галузі хімії. Зміст методичної роботи забезпечує засвоєння фонових знань та знайомство з найбільш вживаною термінологією.
Для студентів вищих навчальних закладів, що спеціалізуються у галузі хімічних наук, студентів перекладацьких відділень (факультетів) університетів, які прагнуть вдосконалити власні навички та вміння перекладання хімічної літератури.
ББК 8.12 Англ. - 923
Contents
THE NATURE OF MATTER
Reading chemical equations
Reading chemical formulas
Welcome to chemistry!
Chemistry is the science of matter and its interactions. Everything around you is made of atoms – atoms and their chemical combinations, molecules. Everything you can see, touch, smell, and taste is made up of chemicals. So, the science of chemistry is a very wide ranging science. Parts can concentrate on how interactions of atoms and molecules allow the nerves in your body to conduct electrical signals. Other parts might concentrate on analyzing clues left by a burglar in order to help the police solve a crime. Still, other parts of chemistry might be involved in making new polymers that might be used by the fashion industry to make more colorful and longer wearing fabrics.
If you have access to a computer and the internet, there are a number of excellent tutoring sites to help students gain a better understanding of chemistry. One of the better sites for middle school students Is:
www.chem4kids.com/
This site is written at university level and has a number of on-line tests that you can use to check your understanding of the material.
Several other good internet sites are:
http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistry101/Chemistry_101_Introduction_to_Chemistry.html - Chemistry 101 - a collection of articles and on-line help sites in chemistry
http://library.thinkquest.org/10429/low/indexl.htm - ChemWeb on line - an introductory chemistry course on line
http://library.thinkquest.org/2923/ - Chemistry Tutor – on line help for chemistry
So, let’s get started! Good luck!
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This is a modern version of the periodic table that Mendeleyev came up with.
The vertical columns are called groups or families. Elements in these groups would have similar chemical properties. For example, all of the elements in VIIIA have filled outer shells – the maximum number of electrons that can go into these shells. This is a stable configuration, so these elements are not very reactive. These elements are called the Nobel Gases or Inert Gases. The elements in group IA all have one electron in the outer shell. All of these elements react by loss of t hat electron. They are all metals and are called the Alkali Metals.
THE NATURE OF MATTER
How do we measure matter? Scientists world wide use the International System of Measurement (SI). This is more commonly known as the metric system. By using a common system of measurements, scientists are able to compare measurements made in different laboratories. The metric system is based on factors of 10. One measurement unit can be converted to a larger unit by multiplying the unit by 10. The base name of the unit would stay the same, but the prefix would change.
Example: Take the unit of length, which is the meter in the metric system. A meter is slightly longer than a yard. In fact, one meter is equal to 1.094 yards. Other units of length in t he metric system could be had by adding a prefix to meter.
Prefix
Multiplication Factor
Name
Symbol
kilo-
1000
kilometer
k
hecto-
100
hectometer
h
deca-
10
decameter
d
1
meter
m
centi-
0.01
centimeter
cm
milli-
0.001
millimeter
mm
When we measure volume, we use the liter. One liter is slightly larger than a quart (1 liter = 1.06 quarts). More commonly, in the laboratory, we use the milliliter (ml), which is one thousandths of a liter (1000 milliliters = 1 liter).
The SI unit of mass is the gram. The gram is a small unit, for example, 453 grams equals one pound. For larger units, we use the kilogram (kg). One kilogram equals 1000 grams.
You should know how to do metric conversions. Some example problems are given below:
Test yourself:
Which measurement is largest: Circle your answer.
14 mm or 1 cm
334 m or 1 km
1 m or 990 cm
145 m or 145 km
3.4 cm or 30 mm
10 km or 1000 cm
How much does each one equal?
100 cm = ______ m
10,000 cm = _____ km
1 liter = _______ ml
1 gram = _______micrograms
1 meter = _______millimeters
What does each unit represent?
mm = _________________
cm = _________________
ml = __________________
kg = __________________
A good internet site for information and practice is:
www.sciencespot.net/Pages/classmetric.html
Another measurement that is useful to scientists is density. Density is a measure of how compact matter is, and it is defined as the mass of an object divided by its volume. The mathematical definition would be:
Density = mass / volume
Since mass is usually measured in grams and volume is usually measured in milliliters, the units of density will be grams per milliliter or gm/ml.
Density is a very useful measurement, as different materials will have different densities. So, density can be used to determine the identity of a substance.
Question: The mass of an object is 15 grams. Its volume is 10 milliliters. What is its density?
Density = mass / volume = 15 grams / 10 milliliters = 1.5 gm/ml
Density is also useful in determining if an object will float on water. The density of water is approximately 1 gram/ml. If an object’s density is greater than that of water, it will sink. If an object’s density is less than that of water, it will float. Would the object in the above problem float or sink?
Question: Calculate the density of a 50 ml block of aluminum if it has a mass of 135 grams.
Question: Calculate the mass of a 200 ml block of titanium if its density is 4.51 gm/ml.
How do we classify matter? Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Scientists use a system to classify matter based on its composition and purity.
Matter in its purest form comes in two types – elements and compounds.
The simplest form of matter is an element. An element is composed of a single kind of atom. Gold would be an example of an element, as it is composed of just gold atoms. If you had a piece of gold, you would just have gold atoms. No other kind of atom would be present.
Compounds are also a pure form of matter, but the particles that make up compounds are composed of more than one kind of atom. These particles are called molecules. A molecule is a particle composed of two or more atoms chemically combined. A good example of a compound would be water. Water is composed of water molecules, each of which is made up of an oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms chemically combined.
When different substances are mixed and there is no chemical reaction, a mixture results. So, a mixture would be a combination of different substances not chemically combined. There are two kinds of mixtures – homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures.
A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition throughout. A good example of a homogeneous mixture would be Coca Cola. You have water with flavors and sugar dissolved in it. If you took samples anywhere in the coke, the composition would be the same. Another name for this mixture is solution. You can have solid solutions. Gold jewelry is a good example of a solid solution. Gold is too soft to use in pure form in jewelry, so it is mixed with other elements such as silver and copper to make it harder.
Given below is the classification scheme for matter. This was taken from:
http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/distance/sci122/Programs/p22/image.gif
/
A good reference site on the classification of matter is:
www.emsb.qc.ca/laurenhill/science/classification.html
Question: Classify the following substances – banana, hot tea, gold ring, water, sugar, aluminum (Al), salt (NaCl), dirt, raisin bread, air.
Physical Changes and the 4 States of Matter. Matter can exist in four physical states – solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Matter can exist in any of these four states depending on the pressure and temperature. It can be converted from one physical state to another by changing the pressure and temperature. No chemical change is involved in changing physical state. A chemical change only occurs when chemical bonds are broken, formed, or both.
When matter is in the solid state, the particles (atoms or molecules) that make up the matter are very close together. These particles can vibrate around fixed positions in space. A solid is characterized by having a fixed shape and a fixed volume. If the temperature of the solid was raised, at a given temperature, the solid would melt and become a liquid.
When a solid melts, the particles that make up the solid gain enough energy so that they can move relative to each other and no longer occupy fixed positions. However, they are still relatively close to each other. Since the particles can move, a liquid is characterized by having a fixed volume but no fixed shape. A liquid will occupy the shape of whatever container it is placed in.
If a liquid is heated, the temperature will rise. The particles of the liquid will move faster as the temperature rises. At the boiling point, the particles gain enough energy so they can move independently of each other, and the liquid is converted to a gas. Since the particles in a gas can move independently of each other, a gas has no fixed volume or shape. A gas will occupy the volume and shape of whatever container it is placed in.
If the temperature were continued to be raised, at very high temperatures, the molecules would be dissociated into atoms, and the atoms would be stripped of their electrons. What would remain would be a mixture of electrons and nuclei. This is a plasma. This is the most common form of regular matter in the universe, as this is what makes up stars. This is what makes up our sun.
In a physical change, there are no chemical bonds broken or formed. In other words, the substance stays the same. Ice would be composed of water molecules. If it were melted into liquid water, it would still be composed of water molecules. If it were boiled and converted into steam, the steam would still be composed of water molecules.
A good site for states of matter is:
http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/atoms/states.html
Questions:
Why won’t a gas stay in a cup?
The gas will stay if you hold the cup upside down.
The gas molecules have too much energy to stay in the cup.
You can’t put gas in a cup.
Can iron ever be a liquid.
Iron is only used in making bridges and cars.
Iron is a metal and can’t be a liquid.
Yes, it can be melted at high temperature.
Why is iron a solid at room temperature and water is a liquid?
The iron atoms are heavier than water molecules and require more energy to melt.
Iron atoms are harder than water molecules.
Iron can only exist as a solid.
In a chemical change, chemical bonds are broken or formed, and a new substance results. For example, if wood were burned, the cellulose in the wood would be converted to carbon dioxide and water. It would no longer be wood. A physical change doesn’t change what the material is. For example, it a paper cup were cut into small pieces, the small pieces would still be paper. If the paper cup was burned, paper would no longer exist. Chemical changes are often accompanied by:
a. Heat given off or absorbed
b. Light given off
c. Change in appearance
e. Production of a gas
f. Changes in odor
Decide if the following changes are chemical or physical changes:
Frying an egg.
Vaporizing dry ice
Boiling water
Burning a candle
Sawing wood
Breaking glass
The site below gives a quiz on physical and chemical changes:
www.quia.com/quiz/303980.html
Reading chemical formulas
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Chemists have a special shorthand way of writing the names of chemicals. For example, water has the formula H2O and salt is NaCl. When iron combines with oxygen in the air to rust, chemists write an equation: - 4 Fe + 3 O2 à 2 Fe2O3. Like any shorthand method of writing, with a few simple rules, the code can be broken and easily read.
This topic will take you through the rules of writing formulas and will help you to read what a chemist means when they write formulas. The next topic Reading chemical equations will help you to read and understand chemical equations.
Chemists have formulas or shorthand names for all atoms, ions, molecules and ionic salts known. If a new substance is discovered, a new formulas is used to describe it using the code of formulas writing.
Rule 1: - All substances are made of atoms. There are 92 naturally occurring atoms, each with their own formulas. For example, the simplest atom, hydrogen is written simply as H, while the next atom, helium, is He. A full list of the elements and their formulas can be found in most science texts under the title "Periodic Table of the elements". See the related web sites for more on the elements and their formulas.
All elements are given a symbol that is either a single capital letter or a capital followed by one or two lower case letters. Here is a list of a few of the elements and their formulas that will be used in this topic:
hydrogen
H
sulfur
S
helium
He
silicon
Si
carbon
C
sodium
Na
calcium
Ca
aluminium
Al
chlorine
Cl
oxygen
O
copper
Cu
iron
Fe
Most formulas reflect the English name of the element, but some follow either the Latin or an older name. For example, Cu for copper comes from its Latin name 'cuprum' and Fe for iron comes from the Latin 'ferrum'.
Rule 2: Formulae of molecules. When writing the formula for a molecule, like H2O for water, all the atoms present in the molecule are listed. A subscript number follows any atoms which are present in the molecule more than once. Formulae are written with no gaps and the capitals denote a new element.
In the water molecule there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Copper sulfate has the formula:- CuSO4 which represents 1 copper atom, 1 sulfur atom and 4 oxygen atoms.
Here are some more:
sodium chloride
salt
NaCl
1 sodium and 1 chlorine atom
silicon dioxide
sand
SiO2
1 silicon and 2 oxygen atoms
aluminium oxide
alumina
Al2O3
2 aluminium and 3 oxygen atoms
Rule 3:- Formula of ions. Ions are electrically charged atoms or molecules. They are formed when electrons are either added or removed from an atom or molecule. The charges on ion are shown with a superscript number, if more than one, and a sign. For example, the sodium ion has a charge of 1+, hence its formula is Na+. Oxygen forms a 2- ion, its formula is O2-.
Here are a few more ions and their formulas:
hydrogen ion 1+
H+
chloride ion 1-
Cl-
calcium ion 2+
Ca2+
sulfide ion 2-
S2-
aluminium ion 3+
Al3+
sulfate ion 2-
SO42-
Note: The sulfate ion's formula (SO42-) shows it has 1 sulfur atom and 4 oxygen atoms with an overall charge of 2-.
Rule 4:- Formulae of salts. When ions combine to form salts, the superscript charges are not shown and only the atoms and their rations are displayed, just like for molecules. Sodium chloride and copper sulfate mentioned above are both ionic salts.
Now go to next topic Reading chemical equations which will help you to read and understand chemical equations.
Reading chemical equations
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It is suggested that the topic Reading chemical formulas be read before undertaking this topic. Chemists have a special shorthand way of writing the names of chemicals and how they behave in chemical reactions. For example, water has the formula H2O and when aluminium combines with oxygen in the air to corrode, chemists write the equation: - 4 Al + 3 O2 / 2 Al2O3 for the reaction.
This topic will help you to read what chemists mean when they write chemical equations.
Formulas and chemical reactions
Chemists have formulas or shorthand names for all atoms, ions, molecules and ionic salts known. These formulas list the types of atoms and number of
each atom present in a substance.
During chemical reactions, substances are broken down and new substances formed. Once a chemist has determined which substances are involved in a reaction their formulas can be determined using the rules of valency and covalency. (See the related topics for more information on valency and covalency.) The formula of a substance is set by these rules and is always the same. Water always has the formula H2O and never varies!
Reactants and products The substances that undergo a chemical reaction are known as "the reactants" and the new substances produced are called "the products". In a chemical equation, the reactants are written on the left and the products on the right with an arrow in the middle denoting a reaction has taken place.
Reactants / Products
If more than one reactant is involved in the reaction or more than one product produced, then plus signs (+) are used between the formulas of the substances involved.
Reactant 1 + Reactant 2 / Product 1 + Product 2
In the initial example of the corrosion of aluminium, aluminium and oxygen are the reactants and aluminium oxide is the single product. 4 Al + 3 O2 / 2 Al2O3
What do the numbers mean? Remember, the subscript numbers, like the 2 in O2, are part of the formulas and denote the number of atoms of each type present in the formulas of the substance. The larger numbers in front of the formulas are part of the chemical equation and denote the number of units of each atom or compound reacted or produced as part of the reaction.
At a very simple level, the equation 4 Al + 3 O2 / 2 Al2O3 can be interputed to mean:
"Four atoms of aluminium and three molecules of oxygen react to form two units of aluminium oxide".
Note: Aluminium oxide exists as cyrstals in a lattice like salt or sand. Strictly speaking, we cannot describe the units of aluminium oxide as molecules.
Atoms are always shown as single elementary formulas with no subscripts. For example: H, He, Al, C and Ca. Molecules are composed of two or more atoms, for example: O2, H2O and C6H12O6.
Note: Like all topics, this subject has been dealt with at a fundamental level and the difference between covalent molecules and ionic salts is not tackled here.
Here are two more equations and their readings:
2 H2 + O2 / 2 H2O
"Two hydrogen molecules and an oxygen molecule react to form two water molecules".
According to the equation, when lime, calcium carbonate (formula CaCO3) is heated, it breaks down into calcium oxide (CaO), and carbon dioxide (CO2)
heat
CaCO3
/
CaO + CO2
"A unit of calcium carbonate breaks down on heating to form a unit of calcium oxide and a molecule of carbon dioxide".
Note: Calcium carbonate and calcium oxide exists as cyrstals in a lattice. Strictly speaking, we cannot describe the units of calcium carbonate and calcium oxide as molecules.
The only other feature of an equation that is commonly used is the state of the substances involved; solid, liquid, gas or water solution.
Solid - is denoted by a subscript (s) after the formula of the substance, CaO(s).
Liquid - is denoted by a subscript (l) after the formula of the substance, H2O(l).
Gas - is denoted by a subscript (g) after the formula of the substance, CO2(g).
The heating of lime thus becomes:
heat
CaCO3(s)
/
CaO(s) + CO2(g)
A unit of solid calcium carbonate breaks down on heating, to form a unit of solid calcium oxide and a molecule of gaseous carbon dioxide
The formation of water becomes:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) / 2 H2O(l)
Two molecules of gaseous hydrogen and a molecule of gaseous oxygen react to form two molecules of liquid water".
A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and formulae, wherein the reactant entities are given on the left-hand side and the product entities on the right-hand side. The coefficients next to the symbols and formulae of entities are the absolute values of thestoichiometric numbers. The first chemical equation was diagrammed by Jean Beguin in 1615.
A chemical equation consists of the chemical formulas of the reactants (the starting substances) and the chemical formula of the products (substances formed in the chemical reaction). The two are separated by an arrow symbol (/, usually read as "yields") and each individual substance's chemical formula is separated from others by a plus sign.
As an example, the equation for the reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium can be denoted:
2 HCl + 2 Na → 2 NaCl + H 2
This equation would be read as "two HCl plus two Na yields two NaCl and H two." But, for equations involving complex chemicals, rather than reading the letter and its subscript, the chemical formulas are read using IUPAC nomenclature. Using IUPAC nomenclature, this equation would be read as "hydrochloric acid plus sodium yields sodium chloride and hydrogen gas."
This equation indicates that sodium and HCl react to form NaCl and H2. It also indicates that two sodium molecules are required for every two hydrochloric acid molecules and the reaction will form two sodium chloride molecules and one diatomic molecule of hydrogen gas molecule for every two hydrochloric acid and two sodium molecules that react. The stoichiometric coefficients (the numbers in front of the chemical formulas) result from the law of conservation of mass and the law of conservation of charge (see "Balancing Chemical Equation" section below for more information).
Common symbols
Symbols are used to differentiate between different types of reactions. To denote the type of reaction:
"/" symbol is used to denote a stoichiometric relation.
"/" symbol is used to denote a net forward reaction.
"/" symbol is used to denote a reaction in both directions.
"/" symbol is used to denote an equilibrium.
The physical state of chemicals is also very commonly stated in parentheses after the chemical symbol, especially for ionic reactions. When stating physical state, (s) denotes a solid, (l) denotes a liquid, (g) denotes a gas and (aq) denotes an aqueous solution.
If the reaction requires energy, it is indicated above the arrow. A capital Greek letter delta (/) is put on the reaction arrow to show that energy in the form of heat is added to the reaction. / is used if the energy is added in the form of light. Other symbols are used for other specific types of energy or radiation.
Balancing chemical equations
/
As seen from the equation CH 4 + 2 O 2 → CO 2 + 2 H2O
A coefficient of 2 must be placed before the oxygen gas on the reactants side and before the water on the products side in order for, as per the law of conservation of mass, the quantity of each element does not change during the reaction
/
P4O10 + 6 H2O → 4 H3PO4
This chemical equation is being balanced by first multiplying H3PO4 by four to match the number of P atoms, and then multiplying H2O by six to match the numbers of H and O atoms.
The law of conservation of mass dictates that the quantity of each element does not change in a chemical reaction. Thus, each side of the chemical equation must represent the same quantity of any particular element. Likewise, the charge is conserved in a chemical reaction. Therefore, the same charge must be present on both sides of the balanced equation.
One balances a chemical equation by changing the scalar number for each chemical formula. Simple chemical equations can be balanced by inspection, that is, by trial and error. Another technique involves solving a system of linear equations.
Balanced equations are written with smallest whole-number coefficients. If there is no coefficient before a chemical formula, the coefficient 1 is understood.
The method of inspection can be outlined as putting a coefficient of 1 in front of the most complex chemical formula and putting the other coefficients before everything else such that both sides of the arrows have the same number of each atom. If any fractionalcoefficient exists, multiply every coefficient with the smallest number required to make them whole, typically the denominator of the fractional coefficient for a reaction with a single fractional coefficient.
As an example, seen in the above image, the burning of methane would be balanced by putting a coefficient of 1 before the CH4:
1 CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Since there is one carbon on each side of the arrow, the first atom (carbon) is balanced.
Looking at the next atom (hydrogen), the right-hand side has two atoms, while the left-hand side has four. To balance the hydrogens, 2 goes in front of the H2O, which yields:
1 CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
Inspection of the last atom to be balanced (oxygen) shows that the right-hand side has four atoms, while the left-hand side has two. It can be balanced by putting a 2 before O2, giving the balanced equation:
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
This equation does not have any coefficients in front of CH4 and CO2, since a coefficient of 1 is dropped.
Basic chemical vocabulary
(according to the alphabet)
Absolute zero - a theoretical condition concerning a system at zero Kelvin where a system does not emit or absorb energy (all atoms are at rest).
Аccuracy - how close a value is to the actual or true value; also see precision.
Аcid - a compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a pH of less than 7.0 or a compound that donates a hydrogen ion.
Аcid anhydride - a compound with two acyl groups bound to a single oxygen atom.
Аcid dissociation constant - an equilibrium constant for the dissociation of a weak acid.
Аctinides - the fifteen chemical elements that are between actinium (89) and lawrencium (103).
Аctivated complex - a structure that forms because of a collision between molecules while new bonds are formed.
Аctivation energy - the minimum energy that must be input to a chemical system.
Аddition reaction - within organic chemistry, when two or more molecules combine to make a larger one.
Аeration - the mixing of air into a liquid or solid.
Аlkali metals - the metals of Group 1 on the periodic table.
Аlkaline earth metals - the metals of Group 2 on the periodic table.
Аllomer - a substance that has different composition than another, but has the same crystalline structure.
Аllotropy - elements that can have different structures (and therefore different forms), such as Carbon (diamonds, graphite, and fullerene).
Аmplitude - the maximum distance that the particles of the medium carrying the wave move away from their rest position.
Аnion - negatively charge ions.
Аnode - the positive side of a dry cell battery or a cell.
Аromaticity - chemical property of conjugated rings that results in unusual stability. See also benzene.
Аtom - a chemical element in its smallest form, and is made up of neutrons and protons within the nucleus and electrons circling the nucleus.
Аtomic number - the number representing an element which corresponds with the number of protons within the nucleus.
Аtomic orbital - the region where the electron of the atom may be found.
Avogadro's number - is the number of particles in a mole of a substance (6.02x10^23).
Barometer - a device used to measure the pressure in the atmosphere.
Base - a substance that accepts a proton and has a high pH; a common example is sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
Beat - a slow oscillation in amplitude of a complex wave.
biochemistry - the chemistry of organisms.
boiling - the phase transition of liquid vaporizing.
boiling point - the temperature in which the substance starts to boil.
boiling-point elevation - the process where the boiling point is elevated by adding a substance.
bond - the attraction and repulsion between atoms and molecules that is a cornerstone of chemistry.
Brønsted-Lowrey acid - A chemical species that donates a proton.
Brønsted-Lowrey base - A chemical species that accepts a proton.
Buffered solution - An aqueous solution consisting of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid that resists changes in pH when strong acids or bases are added.
Burette (also buret) - glassware used to dispense specific amounts of liquid when precision is necessary (e.g. titration and resource dependent reactions).
Catalyst - a chemical compound used to change
01.06.2016 16:06-
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